Academic Sources

Why Should I Care?

Academics insist on a neutral tone in academic papers and monographs. They usually don't appreciate screaming headlines, aggressive statements, and overly enthusiastic comment. They wish to appear non-partisan, unbiased, independent, and objective. They also avoid using the first person, because it can be used to sway opinion, rather than convince with hard facts.

This lesson has 3 parts

• Peer-Review Process
• Academic Voice
  
• Parts of the Paper

What is an Academic Source?

An academic source, whether in social science, or in natural science, is a text published in a scholarly peer-reviewed publication, using a formal tone called the Academic Voice. There are many types of academic sources.

Scholarly
A scholar is someone who accumulates knowledge and understanding of a topic. Most scholars are also academics, which means that they are associated to a learning institution, such as a university.

ArticlePeer-review
Process by which articles are proof-read by scientists or experts, intent on finding methodological mistakes.

MonographScholarly/Academic Journal
A periodical published by university scientists/researchers. Usually managed by an association of university researchers across several institutions. The editor of the journal manages the peer-review process.

Scholarly Article
A research paper published in an academic journal, peer-reviewed.

• Scholarly publications (Journals)

  Monograph
  A scholarlybook publicationpublished containsby articlesan academic press, peer-reviewed. Usually single author.
  

  Edited Book
  A book written by expertsmultiple authors, and published by an academic press. The editor's name is published on the cover, but they are not necessarily the author of the main chapters. The editor's role is to manage the collection and revision of the chapters.
  

  Theses and Dissertations
  Papers published within the university as a requirement for graduation. Master's theses, and Doctoral dissertations are kept in university libraries for future students to reference.
  

  Checking for quality

  When you find a particularsource, field.ask ...

yourself
• 
  
if
• 
  
the
• Booksdocument /is Bookrelevant Chapters.and ...
• Conference proceedings. ...
• 
  
• Theses & Dissertations.

reliable.

Relevance
How closely related to your topic is this document? Is it recent? Is it too technical? Can it provide references to find more documents?

Reliability
Is it scholarly? Is the author reputed and credible? Is the methodology stated? Is there a bibliography?

• Peer-Review Process

The peer-review process ensures that science papers are evaluated by experts in the field of study, prior to publication. The process should be double-blind. This means that the author does not know who is reviewing their paper, and the reviewers do not know who the author is.

This is why the paper is submitted with no mention of the author's name or identity in the text, which can be separated from the cover page. The paper is submitted to the journal's editor, who is the only person to know the identities of the author and the reviewers.

The peer-review process is typical of an academic journal, but it is also the case with publishers of academic books, such as the Oxford University Press, the McGill-Queen's University Press, or the Presses de l'Université du Québec.

If you are not sure if the journal you are looking into is peer-reviewed. you can consult their website, under the instructions for article submissions.

• Academic Voice

The article is intended for a narrow audience of scientists interested in the same field. However, this does not mean it should be impossible to read by anyone else. Your job is to adopt the jargon and tone expected from the discipline and the level of reading of your readers. For this project, your paper should aim to be readable by a strong Sec 4 student.

The Basic Rules

Tone is formal, not personal. Popular writers avoid this style because it makes for a less-than-interesting read for their magazine, news and book readers.

Not using the neutral tone of Academic Voice can lead readers to believe you are trying to convince them with rhetoric, and tricks of the tongue, instead of cold-hard facts and implacable arguments. You should master the Academic Voice writing style now because it is expected in university and increases your credibility by convincing readers of your academic integrity and impartiality.

• Don’t use first person. No ‘I’, no ‘We’.
  • If you need to refer to yourself, use 'The author' instead of 'I'.
    • Ex: The author believes that butter tastes better than margarine.
• Don’t tell a story.
• Don’t state anything as a personal opinion.
• Relate the opinions of others.
• Show both sides of the issue.
• Don’t use “awesome” qualifiers that make the story more interesting.
• Use active sentences.
  • Passive sentences are to be avoided. (This is passive)
  • Avoid passive sentences. (This is active)
• Don’t use deductive fallacy, or bad logic, even if it sounds convincing. Examples:
  • Tautology:  “God exists because it is written in the Bible. The Bible is true because it was inspired by God.” (Also known as the circular argument)
  • False objection: “My dog had rabies, I had to kill him.” (The dog was not sick, but kept defecating on the living room carpet)
  • Guilt by association:  “You are young, and all my employees are young and lazy. You must be lazy.” (Also known as prejudicial discrimination)

More examples: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophisme

• Parts of the Paper
  

It is very useful to know how science papers are organized. This way you can read it quickly, by skipping over sections, and coming back to them later. A science paper usually has six sections:

1. Abstract and Introduction
   The abstract is a short summary of the paper, including data, method, findings and conclusions. The introduction is an opening set of paragraphs that allow the reader to understand the context of the research, and the organization of the paper.
   
   
2. Literature Review
   The literature review presents prior research results, and other facts relevant to the paper. All sources are cited, and referenced.
   
   
3. Methodology
   This section presents how the original data in this paper was collected.
   
   
4. Results / Findings
   This section presents the analysis of the data collected for this paper. Includes summary tables and graphs.
   
   
5. Discussion / Conclusion
   This section discusses the scientific implications of the data analysis, and how this fits in with the prior research. Does this paper contradict, or infirm, other papers? The conclusion speaks to policy implications from this paper. Should something be done about this, given the new data?
   
   
6. References
   The references is a list of documents which were cited in the text. The list is organized by alphabetical order of the last name of the first author of each document.

When you first start reading papers, focus on the author's credentials, the abstract and the conclusions. If the document is relevant and reliable, save the document as a PDF on your computer, and make a note about the basic information. You can read the rest later.

If the document is not relevant and reliable, discard and move on.

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