Skip to main content

2 – How to Build Knowledge Scientifically?

Why Should I Care?


How research is conducted can affect the results of a scientific project. The “Devil is in the details.”



Definitions


Variable:                       Any aspect or characteristic that varies from case to case, or over time.



Empirical data:               Checking our ideas with thorough systematic observation, which can be repeated.



Anecdotal data:              Basing belief on a single case observation.



Hypothesis:                   A statement that focuses on the possible relationships between variables, expressed in a way that involves testing through observation.


Theory:                        A logically coherent set of ideas that accounts for the empirical patterns discovered by empirical research.



Objects of Observation

 

Personal Characteristic                                        Height, skin color, eye color, shoe size, etc.

Socio-Demographic Characteristic                       religion, gender, age, language, income, etc.


Opinion                                                            political, hockey, moral, legal, cultural, artistic

Motivations                                                       interests, goals, objectives, influences

Ideology                                                            schools of thought, political parties, philosophies


Biases / Prejudice                                              culture, education, prior experience

Preferences                                                        taste, culture, personality


Personal History / Background                           events, people, deaths, immigration

Family Dynamics                                               rank in the family, role, age, etc.

Cultural History                                                 events, people, history class, family politics


Perception / Self-Perception                               how you are perceived, how you perceive yourself


Aptitude /Ability                                               running, jumping, typing, reading, speaking, calculating, etc.

Behaviour                                                         doing something, not just talk.

Intention                                                           honesty, lying, mischief, morality.

Action                                                              cowardice, bravery, brazenness, audacity, etc.


Level of Knowledge                                           test, quiz, recall, response time, memory.

Modes of human expression


Verbal Communication


            Recorded


            Live


Non-Verbal Communication


            Physical Behaviour


            Art


            Writings


            Artefacts / Objects


 

 

History of Science


Science is young.


Three elements at the heart of science from its beginnings (p. 6):


  • Transparency
    • In objective observation this is what I recorded
    • In method this is how I recorded it


  • Logic explanations are of reason


  • Repeatability someone else could redo the whole thing



Religion vs. Science – Giordano Bruno



Science in Quebec – each discipline has its story    See political science and economics

                                                                        Psychology

                                                                        Anthropology and History


 

What is the Research Process?


There are 8 steps to the research process.


Step 1:              Choose a topic                                       5 W


Step 2:              Review the literature                               What do we know / ignore?


Step 3:              Formulate the problem                           Question or Hypothesis


Step 4:              Organize research design            Pick and Create the instrument


Step 5:              Gather data                                           Observe and Record


Step 6:              Analyze data                                          Crunch the numbers, facts


Step 7:              Interpret data                                         Compare to flaws, caveats


Step 8:              Communicate results                              Write article, conference



Formal theories are used to build steps 1, 2, 3 and 4.


The latter steps aim to verify the validity of the theories with empirical data.

 

 

What are the Data Collection Methods?                       What are Data Collection Tools?


  1. Survey Questionnaire / Interview




  1. Experiment Laboratory / Questionnaire / Interview /                                                                                     Recordings




  1. Field Work Recordings / Interview / Artefacts




  1. Unobtrusive Measurement Landscape / Artefacts




  1. Content Analysis Documentation / Media




  1. Available Data




About journalistic, casual, and other types of non-scientific research


Deadlines


Owner – Sponsor – Commissioner

 

Audience

 

 

 

How Research Begins


Research does not begin in the lab (p. 20), or in a fieldwork activity. It might begin with a newspaper clipping, a conversation with a colleague, a movie, a book, an observation as a parent, a conversation with your grand-father, etc…


Personal experience – Nazi Germany, Racial Discrimination, Family Environment, etc. may lead some people who suffered these events to study these topics as researchers (p. 21).


However, personal experience can also bias your approach. You may misinterpret the ideas and opinions of people that have another age, gender, ethnicity, mother tongue, income, social class, education, etc.



 

 

4 Values of Modern Research (p. 23)


Objectivity                                gathering data honestly, even if discoveries contradict cherished personal                                                     beliefs



Empirical Verification                 research does not depend on personal experience, intuition, faith in                                                             authority, or tradition to provide answers to their questions.



Cooperation                              science builds on past research (for free) and lays the foundation of future research (for free). Scientists work together on science (for free).



Transparency of Method             communicate method and results clearly, honestly, and in enough detail that                                                other researchers can fully understand how the research was carried out, and                                           the data interpreted.


 


 

Back to top